GLOSSARY
All quoted definitions are courtesy of Merriam-Webster. All word root information courtesy of Online Etymology Dictionary.
Unusual letters
æ: The letter ash, used in Old English and some current Germanic languages. Sounds like the vowel in the word black.
ð: The letter eth, used in Old English and other older versions of some Germanic languages. Sounds like the letter d.
þ: The letter thorn, used in Old English and other older versions of Germanic languages. Pronounced th.
A
A.M.: Stands for Ante meridiem, which is Latin for before midday. Used to clarify clock time. Lesson 2.8: Chronology
AD: Stands for Anno Domini, Latin for “in the year of the Lord.” Years labeled with AD or with no letters refer to our current calendar of years, AD 1 to today. Lesson 2.8: Chronology
Adjective: A class of words that describe nouns (e.g., hungry cat). Open word class. Root: Latin adjectivum "that is added to (the noun)," from ad "to" + iacere "to throw." Lesson 1.4: Capitalization
Attributive Adjectives: Adjectives that go before the noun they modify (e.g., hungry cat). Lesson 4.5: The Interrupters
Phrases used as adjectives (e.g., black-and-white cat) Lesson 4.5: The Interrupters
Quantity adjectives (e.g., a 20-pound cat) Lesson 4.5: The Interrupters
Suspended compound adjectives (e.g., right- or left-handed pitchers) Lesson 4.5: The Interrupters
Two-word attributive adjectives (e.g., all-out war) Lesson 4.5: The Interrupters
Common Adjectives: An adjective that isn’t a proper adjective (e.g., hungry cat). Lesson 1.4: Capitalization
Compound Adjectives: Adjectives that consistent of two or more words (e.g., the two-year-old cat). Lesson 4.5: The Interrupters
Coordinate Adjectives: An adjective that is “at the same level” as the adjective next to it. Both adjectives apply equally and independently to the noun (e.g., He ate a spicy, hot sandwich with his large, appreciative, opinionated family). Lesson 4.2: Advanced Commas!
Non-Coordinate Adjective: An adjective in a series of adjectives that modifies the next adjective in the noun phrase (e.g., He ate a spicy double cheeseburger with red hot sauce). Lesson 4.2: Advanced Commas!
Predicate Adjectives: Adjectives that go after the noun they modify (e.g., The cat seems sleepy). Lesson 4.5: The Interrupters
Proper Adjectives: Adjectives whose description is based on a proper noun, such as a place or person (e.g., Mexican cat). Lesson 1.4: Capitalization
Adverb: A word class that modifies an adjective, a verb, another adverb, and even whole sentences (e.g., the cat is very hungry). Open word class. Root: Latin adverbium "adverb," "that which is added to a verb" from ad- "to” + verbum "verb, word." Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Sentence Adverb: Modifies an entire independent clause (e.g., Unfortunately, the cat has not had enough food). Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Transitional Adverb: Used to join or to connect independent clauses or show the relationship between ideas within an independent clause (e.g., The cat, however, had not had dinner). Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Allegory: “the expression by means of symbolic fictional figures and actions of truths or generalizations about human existence” Root: Greek allegoria "figurative language, description of one thing under the image of another," from allos "another, different" + agoreuein "speak openly, speak in the assembly," from agora "assembly." Lesson 3.6: Spelling & Vocabulary 3
Alliteration: “the repetition of usually initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words or syllables” (e.g., Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers). Root: Latin alliterationem from ad- “to” + littera “letter, script” Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Allusion: “the act of making an indirect reference to something” (e.g., In the sentence “My eyes are on the prize,” the words “prize” is a reference to passages in the Bible that were popularized in a hymn and then a song made famous during the Civil Rights movement) Root: Latin allusionem from ad- “to” + ludere “to play” Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Anaphora: “repetition of a word or expression at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, sentences, or verses especially for rhetorical or poetic effect” (e.g., Give me liberty or give me death). Root: Greek anaphora “reference” from ana- “back” + pherein “to bear” Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Antecedent: The word that a pronoun refers to (e.g., “I fed the cat, but she told me it wasn’t enough food” —> the word “cat” is the antecedent of “she,” a pronoun). Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Aphorism: A clever but brief statement of a truth or sentiment (e.g., "If it ain't broke, don't fix it"). Root: Greek aphorismos "definition; short, pithy sentence," from aphorizein "to mark off, divide," from apo "from" + horizein "to bound." Lesson 5.7: Editing for words & flow 1
Apostrophe: The symbol ’. We use apostrophes to make contractions (e.g., the cat’s bowl). Root: Greek apostrophos "(the accent of) turning away," from apo "off, away from" + strephein "to turn." Lesson 1.9: Contractions
Appositives: A word or phrase that renames the subject of the sentence or adds a new piece of information about them (e.g., Easley, who is a boy with the soul of a cat, writes special entries about fang care for Cat Fancy magazine). Root: Latin apposit- “set near, set before.” Lesson 1.10: Commas!
Nonrestrictive appositive: An appositive that describes its subject but is not essential to the meaning of the sentence (e.g., I went to see the movie, “Donut Attack,” with my friend, Nicole). Lesson 4.2: Advanced Commas!
Restrictive appositive: An appositive that limits its subject and is therefore essential to the meaning of the sentence (e.g., I went to see the movie “Donut Attack” with my friend Nicole). Lesson 4.2: Advanced Commas!
Arabic: The language spoken in North Africa, most of the Arabian Peninsula, and other parts of the Middle East as far back as the 8th century BC.
Argument: “a coherent series of reasons, statements, or facts intended to support or establish a point of view.” Root: Latin argumentum "a logical argument; evidence, ground, support, proof," from arguere "make clear, make known, prove." Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Argument Sentence: A statement of the main idea of a paragraph or text (e.g., Robots are the greatest invention of all time). Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Assonance: “relatively close juxtaposition of similar sounds especially vowels” (e.g., “Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary” - Excerpt from “The Raven” by Edgar Allen Poe). Root: French assonance from Latin assonantem from ad- “to” + sonare “to found” Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Audience: The people who read your text. Root: Latin audentia "a hearing, listening." Lesson 3.1: Introduction to Audience
Autocorrect: “a computer feature that attempts to correct the spelling of a word as the user types it.” Lesson 1.7: Editing pt. 1 (sentence)
B
BC: Stands for Before Christ, which refers to the Christian belief in the birth of Jesus Christ. Years labeled with BC are the set of years that happened before the AD years, 1 BC, and back into the beginning of time (e.g., Aristotle was born in 384 BC). Lesson 2.8: Chronology
Brainstorm: Developing and sorting through raw ideas, usually as part of a process of developing a refined idea or plan. Can be done alone or in a group. Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Bubble Web: A group of circles containing each element of a paragraph, connected with lines to represent how the paragraph’s argument fits together. We use bubble webs to help us organize our minds and writing before we write. Lesson 2.4: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 2
Bullet point: The symbol •. We use bullet points to organize lists. Lesson 2.1: Lists
C
Call to Action: A section in a text that asks the readers to take a specific action. Often, but not always, found in opinion texts. Lesson 2.9: Opinion
Capitalization: Capitalized words are words where the first letter is written in uppercase and the rest of the word (with some exceptions) is written in lowercase letters (e.g., Danny, the cat). Root: Latin capitalis "of the head," from caput "head." Lesson 1.4: Capitalization
All caps: When all the letters of a word are written in uppercase (e.g., EMPTY). Lesson 1.4: Capitalization
Down style: A style that prefers the use of fewer capital letters (e.g., Eight ways to convince your cat to stop meowing at 3 a.m.). Lesson 1.4: Capitalization
Lowercase: An uncapitalized letter (e.g., a). Lesson 1.4: Capitalization
Up style: A style that prefers the use of more capitalization of specific types of nouns and adjectives (e.g., Eight Ways to Convince Your Cat to Stop Meowing At 3 a.m.). Lesson 1.4: Capitalization
Uppercase: A capitalized letter (e.g., A). Lesson 1.4: Capitalization
Celtic: The language spoken throughout much of Western Europe during and before the Roman Empire’s introduction of Latin.
Caricature: “exaggeration by means of often ludicrous distortion of parts or characteristics” (e.g., The cat named Void’s planetary form waddled over to his next gastronomic bacchanalia. With a dramatic meow that could rival a seasoned opera star, he scrutinized each morsel as if he were a feline Gordon Ramsay). Root: French caricature from Italian caricatura “an overloading” from Latin carrus “tow-wheeled wagon” Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Citizen: Official residents of a nation. Root: Latin civis, “citizen.” Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Characteristic: “A distinguishing trait, quality, or property.” Root: Greek kharaktēr "engraved mark," also "symbol or imprint on the soul."
Checkbox: The symbol 𝤿. We use bullet points to organize lists. Lesson 2.1: Lists
Chronology: “The science that deals with measuring time by regular divisions and that assigns to events their proper dates.” Writing with chronology means writing your text content in the order it happened in time. Root: Greek chron- “time” + -logy “study of.” Lesson 2.8: Chronology
Claim: “to assert in the face of possible contradiction” (e.g., Cats are the best pets). Root: Latin clamare “to cry, shout out, proclaim.” Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Subclaim: “a subordinate claim : a claim dependent on or arising out of another” (e.g., Subclaims: Most people love cats + Most people want a pet + Cats are pets that don’t require much work —> Main claim: Cats are the best pets). Root: Latin sub- “under, below” + clamare “to cry, shout out, proclaim.” Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Clause: A group of words containing a subject and predicate and functioning as a member of a complex sentence (e.g., I fed the cat). Root: Latin clausa "conclusion" (this meaning has faded over time). Lesson 1.10: Commas!
Dependent Clause: A clause that can’t stand alone as its own sentence (e.g., After the cat looked at the empty bowl). Lesson 1.10: Commas!
Independent Clause: A clause that can stand alone as its own sentence (e.g., I fed the cat). Lesson 1.10: Commas!
Interdependent Clause: Clauses that depend on each other to complete the thought (e.g., The fewer the cats, the longer the food will last). Lesson 4.2: Advanced Commas!
Comma: The symbol ,. We use this punctuation to connect certain types of clauses in a sentence (e.g., I want pizza, hummus, and shaved ice for dinner). Root: Greek komma "clause in a sentence," also literally "piece which is cut off." Lesson 1.10: Commas!
Complex Sentence: A sentence made up of more than one clause (e.g., I fed the cat, but my cat said it wasn’t enough food). Lesson 1.10: Commas!
Conflict: A struggle between opposing forces (e.g., This is a battle between good and evil over the future of our nation). Root: Latin conflictus from com- “with, together” + fligere “to strike” Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Conjunction: A word class that shows a link between one word, phrase or clause and another word, phrase or clause (e.g., My cat wants the burrito and Slurpee). Closed word class. Root: Latin coniunctionem "to join together" from com- "with, together" + iugare "to join." Lesson 1.10: Commas!
Connecting Phrase: A small collection of words that we use to connect ideas or information across sentences, and that ideally explain the relationship between the ideas or information (e.g., Despite these efforts,). Root: Latin conectere "join together," from com- "together" + nectere "to bind, tie" Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Connecting Word: A word that we use to connect ideas or information across sentences, and that ideally explains the relationship between the ideas or information (e.g., Instead). Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Consonant: Any English language letter that isn’t a, e, i, o, or u (the vowels). Root: Latin consonantem "sounding together, agreeing" from com- "with, together" + sonare "to sound, make a noise." Lesson 1.8: Plurals & Possessives
The Constitution of the United States: The document laying out the core values, government, and laws of the United States of America. The document was created in 1787 and ratified in 1788. Root: Latin constitutionem "act of settling, settled condition, anything arranged or settled upon, regulation, order, ordinance." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Declaration of Independence: A document written in 1776 by leaders of the 13 American colonies of England declaring their intention to become an independent country. This document was written before the U.S. Constitution but contains many of the same ideas and values that were later encapsulated in the Constitution. Lesson 2.10: Beginning to Understand Style
First Amendment: A 1791 addition to The Constitution of the United States that provides that Congress make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting its free exercise. It protects freedom of speech, the press, assembly, and the right to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. Root: Latin emendare "to correct, free from fault." Lesson 2.9: Opinion
Contraction: Contractions smoosh together two words and use an apostrophe to replace missing letters (e.g., it is → it’s). Root: Latin contractionem "a drawing together, an abridging, shortening, a shortening in pronunciation," from com- "with, together" + trahere "to draw." Lesson 1.9: Contractions
Convention: The way something is usually done. A convention is less set in stone than a rule. Root: Latin conventionem "a meeting, assembly; an agreement," from com- "with, together" + venire "to come." Lesson 1.1: Phrases
Copy Editor: A person who edits other people’s texts for money. Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Country: “A political state or nation or its territory.” There is no universal definition of what makes a country. Root: Latin contra "opposite, against." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Couplet: “Two successive lines of verse forming a unit marked usually by rhythmic correspondence, rhyme, or the inclusion of a self-contained utterance” (e.g., “anyone lived in a pretty how town/(with up so floating many bells down)" -e.e. cummings) Root: French couplet from couple. Lesson 5.5: Greek & Latin Roots 5
Creation Story: A verbal, written, or visual story that explains the creation of a people and/or country. Root: Latin creationem "a creating, a producing." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Culture: “The set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution or organization.” Root: Latin cultura "a cultivating, agriculture" and "care, culture, an honoring." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
D
Deductive Reasoning: “inference in which the conclusion about particulars follows necessarily from general or universal premises” (e.g., All cats have claws; Mr. Toebeans is a cat; therefore, Mr. Toebeans has claws). Root: Latin deductivus "derivative" from de "down" + ducere "to lead." Lesson 5.4: Deep argument editing 4
Determiners: A word class that goes in front of a noun to tell readers whether the noun refers to something specific or something of a particular type (e.g., a cat). Closed word class. Root: Latin determinare "to enclose, bound, set limits to" from de- "off" + terminare "to mark the end or boundary," from terminus "end, limit." Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Articles: Sub-word class (e.g, a, an, the). Root: Latin articulus "a part, a member," also "a knuckle; the article in grammar." Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Definite Article: Introduces a specific noun (e.g., the cat is the culprit). Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Indefinite Article: Introduces a general version of a noun (e.g., a cat is the culprit). Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Demonstratives: Describes the position of an object, described from the speaker’s point of view (e.g., why did you have to tear apart that roll of toilet paper?). Root: Latin demonstrativus "pointing out, demonstrating." Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Distributives: Indicates the division of a noun (e.g., my cat wants both pillows). Root: Latin distributus, "to divide, deal out in portions" from dis- "individually" + tribuere "to pay, assign, grant." Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Numbers: Sub-word class (e.g, one, two, three, first, second, third). Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Cardinal: The number (e.g., I want 20 cats). Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Ordinal: The order position (e.g., He was my thirty-third cat). Root: Latin ordinalis "showing order, denoting an order of succession," from ordo "row, series." Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Possessives: Indicates who a noun belongs to (e.g., mine, yours, his, hers, their, its). Root: Latin possessus, "to have and hold, hold in one's control, be master of, own." Lesson 1.8: Plurals & Possessives
Quantifiers: Identifies how much or how little of the noun (e.g., Do you want a lot of food, kitty?). Root: Latin quantus "of what size? how much? how great? what amount?" esson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Direct Address: Directly addressing someone in a sentence, particularly in dialogue (“Try boiling, Grandpa”). Lesson 4.2: Advanced Commas!
Draft: An unfinished version of a text. Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
E
Editing: The process of improving the content, grammar, punctuation, spelling, and flow of writing. Root: Latin editus "give out, put out, publish." Lesson 1.7: Editing pt. 1 (sentences)
Editing for content: Improving the quality and clarity of your argument. Lesson 1.7: Editing pt. 1 (sentences)
Deep content editing: Using the Believing and Doubting game to break apart and then rebuild your argument to be as strong as possible. When you do deep content editing, you question the assumptions, evidence, and rhetorical strategies of your text. Lesson 5.1: Deep Argument Editing 1
Editing for words: Ensuring that your grammar, punctuation, and spelling don’t get in the way of your reader’s ability to understand what you’re trying to communicate. Lesson 1.7: Editing pt. 1 (sentences)
Editing for words & flow: Moving beyond the defense strategy of editing the mechanics of your writing to be correct and clear to the offense strategy of editing the mechanics of your writing to power your genre, audience, style, and rhetorical choices for maximum impact. Lesson 5.7: Editing for Words & Flow 1
e.g.: For example. Use an adjective to describe a noun (e.g., fat cat). Root: Latin exempli gratia "for the sake of example" from exemplum "example" + gratia "sake, favor, grace."
Ellipsis: The punctuation mark … (e.g., I wonder …) Lesson 4.5: The Interrupters
Em Dash: The punctuation mark — (e.g., I will—always—love cats). Lesson 4.5: The Interrupters
Emoji: “Any of various small images, symbols, or icons used in text fields in electronic communication (as in text messages, email, and social media) to express the emotional attitude of the writer, convey information succinctly, communicate a message playfully without using words, etc.” 😎 Root: Japanese e "picture" + moji "character." Lesson 1.1: Spacing
Emotional Formatting: Punctuation and formatting of a text that communicates emotion (e.g., I really love cats!). Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Emphasis: “Force or intensity of expression that gives impressiveness or importance to something.” Root: Greek emphasis "an appearing in, outward appearance" and "significance, indirect meaning" from en- "in" + phainein "to show." Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Ending Punctuation: The punctuation signaling the end of a sentence. Root: Latin punctus "to prick, pierce." Lesson 1.2.3: Periods & Question Marks
Period: The small, single dot that we put at the end of the last word in a sentence to indicate the end of that sentence. Root: Latin periodus "a complete sentence." Lesson 1.2.3: Periods & Question Marks
Question Mark: The ? that we put at the end of the last word in a sentence to indicate both the end of that sentence and that the sentence is a question. Root: Latin quaestionem "a seeking, a questioning, inquiry, examining, judicial investigation." Lesson 1.2.3: Periods & Question Marks
Epiphany: “a usually sudden manifestation or perception of the essential nature or meaning of something” (e.g., I was opening the can of cat food when I realized, “It doesn’t have to be this way anymore!”). Root: Old French epiphanie from Greek epiphaneia from epi- “on, to” + phainein “to show” Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Essay: “an analytic or interpretative literary composition usually dealing with its subject from a limited or personal point of view.” Root: French essai "trial, attempt, essay" from Latin exigere "drive out; require, exact; examine, try, test," from -ex "out" + agere "to set in motion, drive" Lesson 3.3: Essays!
Expository Essay: Investigates an idea, evaluates evidence, and makes an argument about an idea. Lesson 3.3: Essays!
Narrative Essay: Tells a story. Lesson 2.8: Chronology
Persuasive Essay: Overtly attempts to persuade the author’s audience of their opinion on a topic. Lesson 3.3: Essays!
etc.: Et cetera “and others especially of the same kind.” My cat ate the sandwich, beans, toast, ice cream, etc. Root: Latin et cetera "and the others," from et "and" + ceterus "the other, other part, that which remains."
Euphemism: “the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant” (e.g., The cat was downsized —> meaning, the cat was forced to lose weight). Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Explicit: “Fully revealed or expressed without vagueness, implication, or ambiguity: leaving no question as to meaning or intent.” Root: Latin explicitus "unobstructed," from ex- "out" + plicare "to fold." Lesson 2.10: Style & Genre
F
Fact: “A piece of information presented as having objective reality.” Root: Latin factum "an event, occurrence, deed, achievement." Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Fluff Statements: Sentences that lack specific information and generally contribute no new information or insight (e.g., I learned a great deal from the experience). Lesson 4.3: The Fuzzies
Font: “An assortment or set of type or characters all of one style and sometimes one size.” Root: Latin fundere "to melt, cast, pour out." Lesson 2.10: Style & Genre
Foot: A foot in poetry is the units of syllables in a line. A foot contains one stressed syllable and at least one unstressed syllable. Lesson 5.5: Greek & Latin Roots 5
Formal: Characterized by high respect for convention and rules. Root: Latin formalis, from forma "a form, figure, shape." Lesson 1.9: Contractions
Formatting: “The shape, size, and general makeup” of a thing. Root: Latin forma "form, shape." Lesson 2.10: Style & Genre
Fuzzies: Writing that is grammatically correct but confusing because of the overuse of complicated verb tenses, the subjunctive, point of view switches, dangling participles, negatives, unnecessary fluff, or other writing choices. Root: Unknown origin fusse, which first appeared in fusball "puff ball of tiny spores." Lesson 4.3: The Fuzzies
Fuzzy negatives: Stating information in the negative in such a way as to confuse your audience (e.g., I can’t not believe he said that) Lesson 4.3: The Fuzzies
G
Genre: The type or category of writing (e.g., mystery novels, science journal articles). Root: French genre "kind, sort, style." Lesson 2.10: Style & Genre
Germanic Languages: Languages descended from a common ancestor known as Proto-Germanic, which was a branch of the larger language family known as Indo-European. Proto-Germanic speakers lived in the north of Europe roughly around 500 BC to AD 200. Lesson 1.5: Roots
German: A Germanic language developed around the 6th century in the modern areas of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland.
Middle English: English spoken and written in England from roughly 1100 to 1500.
Modern English: The form of English spoken since the Great Vowel Shift. Roughly 1500+.
Old Danish: The form of Danish spoken and written in Denmark from roughly 800 to 1525.
Old English: English spoken and written in England before 1100.
Old French: The form of French spoken and written in parts of modern France from approximately the 8th and 13th centuries.
Old Norse: A Germanic language spoken in Norway and Iceland from approximately 1150 to 1350.
Scandinavian: The areas of Northern Europe that are now modern Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.
Government: “The organization, machinery, or agency through which a political unit exercises authority and performs functions and which is usually classified according to the distribution of power within it.” Root: Latin gubernare "to direct, rule, guide, govern," originally "to steer, to pilot." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Anarchy: No government. Root: Greek anarkhia "lack of a leader, the state of people without a government" from an- "without" + arkhos "leader." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Aristocracy: A governing body or upper class usually made up of people who inherited their positions from their parents. Root: Greek aristokratia "government or rule of the best; an aristocracy," from aristos "best of its kind, noblest, bravest, most virtuous" + kratos "rule, power" Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Colonialism: When your country is governed by another nation. Your people and institutions have little to no power. Root: Latin colonia "settled land, farm, landed estate," from colonus "husbandman, tenant farmer, settler in new land," from colere "to cultivate, to till; to inhabit; to frequent, practice, respect; tend, guard." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Communism: A government in which there are no social classes, power, or economic or social distinctions between people allowed. Everything is owned and controlled by a collective government of working people. Root: Latin communis "in common, public, shared by all or many." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Democracy: A government in which the supreme power belongs to the people. Root: Greek dēmokratia "popular government," from dēmos "common people." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Direct Democracy: People vote directly on everything, with no representatives. Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Representative Democracy: People vote to elect representatives who then vote on most items on behalf of the people who elected them. Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Military Dictatorship: A dictatorship (a form of government in which absolute power is concentrated in one person) controlled by the military (the fighting forces of a country). Root: Latin dictator, from dicere "to say, speak." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Monarchy: A government controlled by a queen or king, who inherits their position from their parents. Root: Greek monarkhia "absolute rule," literally "ruling of one," from monos "alone" + arkhein "to rule." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Oligarchy: A government in which a small group of people is in control. Root: Greek oligarkhia "government by the few," from oligos "few, small, little" + arkhein "to rule." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Republic: A democracy that also has a constitution or other legal document that protects specific rights that can’t be taken away by the government, even if the majority of voters want to remove the right. Root: Latin respublica "the common weal, a commonwealth, state, republic" from res "affair, matter, thing" + publica "public." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Socialism: A government in which the economy (the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services) is owned or regulated by the community as a whole. Root: French from Latin socialis "of companionship, of allies; united, living with others." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Technocracy: A government led by technical experts. Root: Modern English based on Greek tekhnē "art, skill” + Greek -kratia "power, might; rule, sway.” Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Theocracy: A government either ruled directly by a divine figure (e.g., God) or by officials who act as representatives of that divinity. Root: Greek theos "god" + kratos "a rule, regime, strength." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Totalitarianism: Complete control by a central government. There is no individual freedom. Root: Latin totus "all, all at once, the whole” + auctor "master, leader, author." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Grammar: The study of the types of words in a language and what specific words do in a sentence. Root: Greek grammatike "(art) of letters," from gramma "letter" + tekhnē “art, skill.” Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Descriptive Grammar: The study of the grammatical elements and the conventions of a language as it’s actually used. This is the approach of linguists. Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Prescriptive Grammar: The study of the grammatical elements and the conventions of a language as authorities think it should be used. This is the approach of copy editors. Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Grammatical Mood: The way we use verbs to express our attitude toward what we’re saying. Lesson 4.3: The Fuzzies
Indicative: For stating facts (e.g., Jane fed the cat) Lesson 4.3: The Fuzzies
Imperative: For issuing commands (e.g., Feed the cat!) Lesson 4.3: The Fuzzies
Subjunctive: For expressing desires and hypotheticals (e.g., I ask that you feed the cat, Jane) Lesson 4.3: The Fuzzies
Great Vowel Shift: The period in the 15th to early 17th century when English speakers began pronouncing vowels very differently. Lesson 1.6: Spelling
Greek: The various forms of Greek spoken from the 14th century BC to the 4th century BC. Not the modern version of the language. Root: Greek Graikoi. Lesson 1.5: Roots
H
Haiku: A type of poetry, of Japanese origin, which has three lines. The first line has five syllables, the second has seven, and the third has five. Root: Japanese from haikai no ku "comic verse(s)." Lesson 1.5: Roots
Hierarchy: “A graded or ranked series.” Root: Greek hierarkhia "rule of a high priest," from ta hiera "the sacred rites" + arkhein "to lead, rule."
Homophone: “One of two or more words pronounced alike but different in meaning or derivation or spelling (such as the words to, too, and two).” Root: Greek homos "same" + phone "sound." Lesson 1.9: Contractions
Honorifics: “Belonging to or constituting a class of grammatical forms used in speaking to or about a social superior.” Examples: Mr., Mrs., Ms., Captain, Coach, Professor, Your Honor, etc. Root: Latin honorificus "that which does honor," from honorem + -ficus "making, doing." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Hyperbole: “extravagant exaggeration” (e.g., The cat ate the whole planet). Root: Latin hyperbole from Greek hyperbole from hyper- “beyond” + bole “a throwing” Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Hyphen: The punctuation mark - (e.g., If your cheese curd really thirty-nine years old?). Lesson 4.5: The Interrupters
Hard hyphen: Hyphens we use to join certain compound words regardless of their location on a page (e.g., That sculpture is a life-size replica of my cat). Lesson 4.5: The Interrupters
Soft hyphen: Hyphens that you place at the end of a line of text to indicate that a word continues on the next line (e.g., The cat ate my sand-/wich while I was out). Lesson 4.5: The Interrupters
I
i.e.: “That is.” My cat eats an especially hearty dinner every night (i.e., his dinner plus mine). Root: Latin id est "that is."
Idea: “a formulated thought or opinion.” Root: Greek idea "form; the look of a thing; a kind, sort, nature; mode, fashion," from idein "to see." Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Illustration: “A picture or diagram that helps make something clear or attractive.” Root: Latin illustrationem "vivid representation" from in- "in" + lustrare "make bright, illuminate"
Imagery: Any sensory detail in a text, particularly the use of figurative words to evoke a feeling or idea or describe something (e.g., The sky was full of black crows, hovering and waiting). Root: Old French imagerie from Latin imaginem “copy, imitation” and “phantom, ghost” Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Implicit: “Capable of being understood from something else though unexpressed.” Root: Latin implicitus "entangled, confused, involved," from in- "into, in, on, upon" + plicare "to fold." Lesson 2.10: Style & Genre
Indent: “To set (something, such as a line of a paragraph) in from the margin.” Root: Latin indentare "to furnish with teeth," from in- "into, in, on, upon" + dens "tooth." Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Inductive Reasoning: “inference of a generalized conclusion from particular instances” (e.g., Mr. Toebeans, Ladyfloof, and Whiskers are all cats I have met, and they all have claws; therefore, all cats probably have claws). Root: Latin inductio from Greek epagoge "leading to." Lesson 5.4: Deep argument editing 4
Infinitive: The base form of a verb. The verb hasn’t been modified to reflect the subject or tense. In English, all infinitives follow the form “to [rest of verb]” (e.g., to eat, to pet, to sleep, to vomit). Root: Latin infinitus "not limited" from in- "not, opposite of" + finitus "defining, definite," from finis "end." Lesson 5.7: Editing for Words & Flow 1
Informal: “Characteristic of or appropriate to ordinary, casual, or familiar use.” Root: Latin in- "not" + forma "a form, figure, shape." Lesson 1.9: Contractions
Interjections: An exclamation word class that shows people’s reactions to events and situations (e.g., Hey! The cat stole my sock!). Closed word class. Root: Latin interiectionem "a throwing or placing between" from inter- "between" + -icere "to throw." Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Interrupter: A single word or phrase that adds detail, emphasis, transition, or commentary to a sentence (e.g., Pickles, to his credit, is now cleaning himself more often). Root: Latin interruptus "break apart," from inter "between" + rumpere "to break." Lesson 4.2: Advanced Commas!
Irony: “the use of words to express something other than and especially the opposite of the literal meaning” (e.g., Naming a chonky cat Tiny). Root: Latin ironia from Greek eironeia “dissimulation, assumed ignorance” Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
J
Journalism: “Writing designed for publication in a newspaper or magazine.” Root: French from Latin diurnalis "daily," from Latin dies "day." Lesson 2.9: Opinion
K
L
Lampoon: “a harsh satire usually directed against an individual” (e.g., Whoops! You forgot to mention cats in that sentence, June Writers. But don’t worry, you’ve already mentioned cats 397 times in this paragraph. It just might be enough.) Root: French lampon Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Language: “The words, their pronunciation, and the methods of combining them used and understood by a community.” Root: Old French from the Latin lingua "tongue." Lesson 1.5: Roots
Latin: The language spoken by officials of the Roman Empire beginning in 700 BC. The language died out around 600-750 AD but became a part of many other languages. Root: Latin Latinus "Latin, Roman, in Latin," literally "belonging to Latium," the region of Italy around Rome. Lesson 1.5: Roots
Laws: “A binding custom or practice of a community.” Root: Old English lagu "ordinance, rule prescribed by authority, regulation; district governed by the same laws." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Limerick: A five-line poem comprised of a single stanza with an AABBA rhyme scheme. Limericks are usually short stories and funny. See the example below, by an anonymous author. Root: Unclear. Lesson 5.5: Greek & Latin Roots 5
There was a young lady of Lynn,
Who was so uncommonly thin
That when she essayed
To drink lemonade
She slipped through the straw and fell in.
Linguistics: “The study of human speech including the units, nature, structure, and modification of language.” Root: Latin lingua “language, tongue.” Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
List: Formatted information about related ideas, people, animals, wishes, or things--without context or analysis. Root: Old English liste "border of cloth, fringe." Lesson 2.1: Lists
Logical fallacies: Reasoning within an argument that is not logically valid. Level 3 and Level 4
Appeal to probability: When someone takes something for granted because it would probably be the case. Example: The cat is usually asleep at this time, so he must be asleep now. Reality: The cat is awake today. Level 3
Appeal to selective evidence (aka, cherry picking): When someone chooses to use only some of the existing evidence on a topic to support their position and ignores or dismisses any findings that do not support their position. Example: Two studies showed that cat toothpaste greatly improves the health of cat teeth, therefore it is indisputable that cat toothpaste is a necessary part of cat healthcare. Reality: Many more studies have inclusive or negative evaluations of the benefits of cat toothpaste. Level 3
Argument to moderation: Believing that truth is always in the middle of two opposites. Example: One person says, "Air exists" and a second person says, "Air doesn't exist." Therefore, you conclude that air must sometimes exist. Reality: Air exists. Level 3
The bandwagon fallacy: Claiming that a position is correct because it’s popular or “everyone else believes it already." Anya: "No one should use Dead Fish toothpaste. Everyone hates their products because they know their cat toothpaste is dangerous.” Level 3
The burden of proof fallacy: When you claim something is true because there is no evidence against it. Dead Fish brand representative: “There’s no evidence that we put sand in our products.” Level 3
Circular reasoning: An argument that comes back to its beginning without having proven anything. Example: Rohan can't swim because of the shape of his feet. Because of Rohan's feet, he can't swim. Reality: Rohan can't swim because he refuses to get into the water and learn, partly out of concern about his feet. Level 3
Dogmatism: “the expression of an opinion or belief as if it were a fact: positiveness in assertion of opinion especially when unwarranted or arrogant” (e.g., Cats are the best pets, period. I won’t hear otherwise). Root: Latin dogmaticus from Greek dogmatikos “pertaining to doctrines” from dokein “to seem good, think” Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
False causality: An argument that assumes that one event causes another. Example: Every time I pet my cat, she farts. - Petting causes my cat to fart. Reality: The cat farts throughout the day because of too much lactose in her diet. Level 3
False dilemma: Presenting only two options or sides when there are many options or sides. Example: If you don't eat the peanut butter cups, you'll have to eat the gummy bears. Reality: There are many different types of candy to choose from.
False equivalences (aka, comparing apples and oranges): Describing two or more statements as virtually equal when they are not. Example: Me stealing your lunch is no more scary than your father forgetting to pack your lunch. Reality: Being robbed and physically assaulted by a school bully is significantly scarier than your father being spacey. Level 3
Faulty analogy: Comparing something to something else as in an analogy, but the comparison is exaggerated, unreasonable, or misleading (e.g., Taking your cat to that vet is like being an honored guest at Buckingham Palace). Root: Old French faute “opening, gap; failure, flaw, blemish; lack, deficiency” from Latin falsus “deceptive, feigned, spurious” Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Motte-and-bailey: When instead of defending a controversial position (the "bailey"), the debater retreats to defending a less controversial position (the "motte"), while acting as though the positions are equivalent. When the “motte” has been accepted by an opponent, the arguer sneaks back to the “bailey” and claims their opponent has conceded the “bailey.” Motte: "My cat was seriously harmed by Dead Fish toothpaste." Opponent: "OK, I'm sorry that happened." Bailey: Exactly! No one should use Dead Fish toothpaste because it clearly harms all cats. Level 3
Scare tactics: Scaring someone into agreeing with you regardless of the evidence (e.g., If you don’t feed that cat right now, she’ll die). Root: Middle English skerren “to frighten” someone from Old Norse skirra “to frighten” Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Sentimental appeals: Appeals to emotion that omit explanations for the claim (e.g., For only $1 a day, you can feed millions of adorable stray cats the food they are desperate to eat!). Root: Old French santement, sentement from Latin sentire “to feel” Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Slippery slope: Using the fear of a bad thing waiting at the bottom of a slippery slope to convince the audience that the first action, however minor, should also not occur (e.g., If you adopt this cat, pretty soon your whole house will be overrun by cats!). Root: Old English slipor Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
The “No True Scotsman” fallacy: When one person protects their generalized claim by denying counterexamples. They do this by changing the initial terms of their generalization to invalidate any counterexamples that might exist. Computer hobbyist: “I paid for your software.” Bill Gates: “But you’re not a real hobbyist. Real hobbyists never pay for my software.” Level 3
Unwarranted associative jump: When a word or phrase triggers an associated idea, concept, or experience that bears no close relation to the text at hand, yet is used to interpret the text. Example: The text uses an analogy about going to the dentist to make a point about the physics of black holes, so you judge the evidence based on your own experiences with going to the dentist. Reality: Your experience going to the dentist has no relationship to the physics of space. Level 3
Whataboutism (tu quoque fallacy): The strategy of responding to an accusation or difficult question by making a counteraccusation or raising a different issue. Anya: "No one should use Dead Fish toothpaste because it harms cats." Dead Fish brand representative response: “Don’t you have a lawsuit pending against your local grocery store, Anya?” Level 3
M
Meme: “An amusing or interesting item (such as a captioned picture or video) or genre of items that is spread widely online especially through social media.” Root: Modern English, from Greek sources, such as mimeisthai "to imitate." Lesson 1.2.1: Memes
Metaphor: “A figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a likeness [...] between them” (e.g., My cat is a pillow). Root: Greek metaphora "a transfer," from meta "over, across" + pherein "to carry, bear." Lesson 2.10: Style & Genre
Extended Metaphor: A metaphor that carries on for longer than a clause or sentence. Lesson 4.7: Spelling & Vocabulary 4
Meter: The meter describes the number of feet in a line in a poem. Lesson 5.5: Greek & Latin Roots 5
Dimeter: two feet (e.g., In the | food bowl) Lesson 5.5: Greek & Latin Roots 5
Hexameter: six feet (e.g., The cats | which I | have fed | I now | can find | no more) Lesson 5.5: Greek & Latin Roots 5
Pentameter: five feet (e.g., Shall I | compare | thee to | a fat|ter cat?) Lesson 5.5: Greek & Latin Roots 5
Tetrameter: four feet (e.g., Kitty,| kitty, | eating | wet food) Lesson 5.5: Greek & Latin Roots 5
Trimeter: three feet (e.g., I think | the cat | is fat) Lesson 5.5: Greek & Latin Roots 5
Micronation: Small, self-proclaimed independent sovereign states which are not acknowledged as such by any actual governmental authority. Root: Greek smikros "small, little, petty, trivial, slight" + Latin nationem "birth, origin; breed, stock, kind, species; race of people, tribe," from natus "be born." Lesson 2.2.1: Invent A Country!
Midnight: 12 a.m. Root: Old English mid-niht. Lesson 2.8: Chronology
N
Natural Resource: A material or other item that can be found in nature and used with few modifications. Root: French resourse "a source, a spring," from Latin resurgere "rise again." Lesson 2.2.1: Invent A Country!
Newspaper: “A paper that is printed and distributed usually daily or weekly and that contains news, articles of opinion, features, and advertising.” Root: Latin nova "news" + Greek papyros "any plant of the paper plant genus." Lesson 2.9: Opinion
Noon: 12 p.m. Root: Old English non "3 o'clock p.m., the ninth hour from sunrise," from Latin nona hora "ninth hour" of daylight, from nonus "ninth." Lesson 2.8: Chronology
Noun: A word used to identify a person, place, or thing (e.g., cat). Root: Latin nomen “name.” Lesson 1.3: Sentences
Collective noun: Nouns that refer to a class or group (e.g., “team,” “jury,” “audience,” and “class”). Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Common noun: Generic name for a class or group (e.g., cat, bowl, food). Lesson 1.4: Capitalization
Proper noun: Names a specific noun, such as a person or a place (e.g., Danny, Hester, Cambridge). Lesson 1.4: Capitalization
O
Object: A noun or noun equivalent indicating the goal or result of the action of a verb in a sentence (e.g., I fed the cat). Root: Latin obiectus "lying before, opposite" (as a noun in classical from ob- "in front of, towards, against" + iacere "to throw." Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Direct Object: The person or thing that directly receives the action or effect of the verb. It answers the question "what" or "whom" (e.g., I fed the cat). Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Indirect Object: Answers the question "for what," "of what," "to what," "for whom," "of whom," or "to whom" and accompanies a direct object (e.g., I fed the cat for you). Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Onomatopoeia: “the use of words whose sound suggests the sense” (e.g., buzz, hiss, splash). Root: Latin onomatopoeia from Greek onomatopoiia from onoma “word, name” + poieian “compose, make” Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Op-Ed: An opinion text written by someone who doesn’t work at a newspaper, that is published in a newspaper. It was initially designed to present views that were the opposite of the Editorial page. Root: Latin editor "one who puts forth." Lesson 2.9: Opinion
Opinion: “A view, judgment, or appraisal formed in the mind about a particular matter.” Root: Latin opinionem "opinion, conjecture, fancy, belief.” Lesson 2.9: Opinion
Outline: Outlines are vertical lists that use formatting to show the hierarchy of the information in the list. We use outlines to organize our thoughts in the pre-writing phase. Root: Old English ut "out, without, outside" + Latin linea "linen thread, string, plumb-line," and "a mark, bound, limit, goal; line of descent." Lesson 2.4: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 2
P
P.M.: Stands for post meridiem, Latin for after midday. Used to clarify clock time. Lesson 2.8: Chronology
Pace: “Rate of movement.” Root: Latin passus, passum "a step, pace, stride," from pandere "to stretch (the leg), spread out." Lesson 2.10: Style & Genre
Paragraph: A group of related sentences–offset by space from other paragraphs–that collectively communicate a complex idea. Root: Greek paragraphos "short stroke below the beginning of a line marking a break in sense," also "a passage so marked," from para- "beside" + graphein "to write." Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Fully-Connected Paragraph: A three-layer paragraph that has the content woven together with analysis, connections, and a deeper layer of insight. Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
List Paragraph: A paragraph that is the main idea sentence plus a list of facts with no analysis or connections. It may as well be a list. Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Parallel Construction: Building your sentences with the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance (e.g., Go where you’re celebrated, not where you’re tolerated”). Lesson 5.7: Editing for Words & Flow 1
Parody: "a [...] work in which the style of an author or work is closely imitated for comic effect or in ridicule" (e.g., Introducing Gleam Supreme Toothpaste—because nothing says fresh breath like the invigorating essence of minty mountain air and the questionable life choices you made last night). Root: Greek paroidia "burlesque song or poem," from para- "beside, parallel to" + oide "song, ode" Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Participle: Both a form of a verb in the past perfect or present perfect tenses that can’t stand alone as a verb and words that can act like adjectives. Participles almost always ends in -ed, -n, -en, -t, -d, or -ing (e.g., the raised dead, the sniffing dog). Root: Latin participium, meaning "a sharing." Lesson 4.3: The Fuzzies
Dangling participle: A participle that unintentionally modifies the wrong noun in a sentence, or sometimes nothing at all (e.g., Sniffing my cat’s butt, my aunt let me pat her dog.) Lesson 4.3: The Fuzzies
Phoneme: The sound chunks of a word (e.g., /oo/). There are 44 phonemes in the English language. Root: Greek phonema "a sound made, voice," from phone "sound, voice." Lesson 1.6: Spelling & Vocabulary 1
Phrase: A short group of words that, together, aren’t a full clause or sentence (e.g., Soft like tofu). Root: Greek phrasis "speech, way of speaking, enunciation, phraseology." Lesson 1.1: Phrases
Phrase Class: A group of two or more words that has a specific word class as its head or performs the same grammatical function as that word class in a sentence. Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Noun Phrase: A group of two or more words that has a noun or pronoun as its head or performs the same grammatical function as a noun in a sentence (e.g., [The sleeping cat] snored —> [Article + Adjective + Noun] + Verb) Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Preposition Phrase: The object of a preposition is the person or thing being acted on or referenced by the preposition (e.g., [Before making a cake], it’s wise to make sure you have all the ingredients —> [Preposition + Object]) Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Verb Phrase: A group of two or more words that has a verb as its head or performs the same grammatical function as a verb in a sentence (e.g., The cat [might have eaten] your birthday cake —> Noun phrase + [Modal auxiliary verb + Auxiliary verb + Main verb] + Noun phrase) Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Pilcrow: “A paragraph mark ¶.” Root: A corruption of crow and pilcraft "a paragraph mark; a paragraph; an asterisk." Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Plural: More than one thing (e.g., cats). Root: Latin pluralis "of or belonging to more than one," from plus "more." Lesson 1.8: Plurals & Possessives
Poem: “Writing that formulates a concentrated imaginative awareness of experience in language chosen and arranged to create a specific emotional response through meaning, sound, and rhythm.” Root: Greek poēma "fiction, poetical work," literally "thing made or created." Lesson 1.5: Roots
Point of View: The narrator’s position in relation to the story being told. Lesson 4.3: The Fuzzies
First-person: I/we perspective (e.g., This is the story about why my cat hates me). Lesson 4.3: The Fuzzies
Second-person: You perspective (e.g., You lift the cat and your back cramps). Lesson 4.3: The Fuzzies
Third-person: He/she/it/they perspective (e.g., Three hours later, Jason had still not left to pick up his cat from the vet). Lesson 4.3: The Fuzzies
Politics: “The art or science of government.” Root: Greek politikos "of citizens, pertaining to the state and its administration; pertaining to public life," from polites "citizen," from polis "city." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Polysyndeton: A literary device that intentionally uses multiple repetitions of the same conjunction in a row to create emphasis or slow the rhythm of the text. Root: Ancient Greek poly- “many” + syndetos “bound together, conjunctive” (e.g., “I fed the cat, and she was still hungry, and she vomited on the rug.”). Lesson 4.2: Advanced Commas!
Possessive: Expresses ownership between two words (e.g., Chuck’s cat). Root: Latin possessivus, from possidere "to possess." Lesson 1.8: Plurals & Possessives
Power: “Possession of control, authority, or influence over others.” Root: Latin potis "powerful." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Pre-writing: The first step of the writing process. This is the stage where you figure out what you’re writing about, and do the research and organization you need to be ready to write the first draft. Root: Latin prae "before in time or place." Lesson 2.4: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 2
Predicate: What’s said about the subject in a sentence or clause. Predicates consist of a verb and other stuff (e.g., I fed the cat). Root: Latin praedicatum "that which is said of the subject," from prae- "forth, before" + dicare "proclaim." Lesson 1.3: Sentences
Compound predicate: When one subject governs two verbs (e.g., Sure, Ronan should learn to multiply and divide in elementary school but has a duty in his old age to adopt more cats). Lesson 4.2: Advanced Commas!
Prefix: A word root at the beginning of a word (e.g., technology). Root: Latin praefixum from prae "before" + root of figere "to fasten, fix." Lesson 1.5: Roots
Preposition: A word class that expresses the physical or time relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words (e.g., Never put a cat on someone’s body without asking both human and feline). Closed word class. Root: Latin praepositionem "a putting before, a prefixing" from prae- "before" + ponere "put, set, place." Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Pronoun: A word class that substitutes for other nouns when your reader already knows which nouns you’re referring to (e.g., I, she, he, you, it, we, they). Closed word class. Root: Latin pronomen "word standing in place of a noun.” from pro- "in place of" + nomen "name, noun." Lesson 1.3: Sentence Basics
Object Pronouns: The pronouns you use as the object of a verb or a preposition (e.g., her, him, me, us, etc.). Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Subject Pronouns: The pronouns you use as a subject in a sentence (e.g., he, she, I, etc.). Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Prose: “The ordinary language people use in speaking or writing.” Root: Latin prosa, short for prosa oratio "straightforward or direct speech" from pro- "forward" + vorsus "turned."
Publish: “To disseminate to the public.” Root: Latin publicare "make public," from publicus "public, pertaining to the people."
Punctuation: The marks and symbols we insert into a text to clarify its meaning and make it easy to read for our audience. Root: Latin punctus from pungere "to prick, pierce.”
Close Punctuation: A style of writing that used a lot of commas and other punctuation marks. Popular with English-speaking authors in earlier centuries. Lesson 2.10: Style & Genre
Open Punctuation: A style of writing that used as few commas and other punctuation marks as possible. Now popular with English-speaking authors. Lesson 2.10: Style & Genre
Q
R
Reasoning: The act of developing “a statement offered in explanation or justification.” Root: Latin ratio "reckoning, understanding, motive, cause," from ratus "to reckon, think." Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Refugee: “A person who flees to a foreign country or power to escape danger or persecution.” Root: Latin refugium "a taking refuge; place to flee back to," from re- "back" + fugere "to flee." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Research: “The collecting of information about a particular subject.” Root: Old French recercher "seek out, search closely," from Latin re- + cercher "to seek for," from Latin circare "go about, wander, traverse." Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Rhetoric: The art of persuasion with words. A man named Aristotle invented the study of rhetoric back in Ancient Greece in the 4th century BC. Root: Greek rhētorikētekhnē "art of an orator" from rhetor “speaker, master speaker, orator” + techne “art, skill.” Lesson 2.9: Opinion
Ethos: Character authority. Root: Greek ēthos "habitual character and disposition; moral character; habit, custom; an accustomed place." Lesson 2.9: Opinion
Kairos: Capitalizing on the fit with the audience and moment to persuade. Root: Greek kairos “fitness, opportunity, time.” Lesson 2.9: Opinion
Logos: Using logic and evidence to persuade. Root: Greek logos "word, speech, statement, discourse," also "reason, judgment, understanding." Lesson 2.9: Opinion
Pathos: Using feeling to persuade. Root: Greek pathos "suffering, feeling, emotion, calamity." Lesson 2.9: Opinion
Rhythm: “An ordered recurrent alternation of strong and weak elements in the flow of sound and silence in speech.” Root: Old French rime "verse," from Latin rhythmus "movement in time," from Greek rhythmos. Lesson 5.5: Greek & Latin Roots 5
Anapest: unstressed/unstressed/stressed (da-da-DUM) (e.g., In the fur of a cat lurked an old stinking rat). Root: Greek anapaistos "struck back, rebounding," from ana- “back” + paiein “to strike.” Lesson 5.5: Greek & Latin Roots 5
Dactyl: stressed/unstressed/unstressed (DUM-da-da) (e.g., Catch the cat, hug the cat, feed the cat, cry the cat). Root: “Greek daktylos, a unit of measure (a finger-breadth), also ‘a fruit of the date tree, a date,’ literally ‘finger’ (also ‘toe’) [...]. The metrical use [...] is by analogy with the three joints of a finger.” Lesson 5.5: Greek & Latin Roots 5
Iamb: unstressed/stressed (da-DUM) (e.g., I think the cat is fat). Root: Greek iambos “metrical foot of one unaccented followed by one accented syllable.” Lesson 5.5: Greek & Latin Roots 5
Spondee: stressed/stressed (DUM-DUM) (e.g., Chomp chomp, fur beast). Root: Greek spondeios, “the name of the meter originally used in chants accompanying libations, from spondē ‘solemn libation, a drink-offering.’” Lesson 5.5: Greek & Latin Roots 5
Trochee: stressed/unstressed (DUM-da) (e.g., Kitty, kitty, eating wet food). Root: Greek trekhein "to run.” Lesson 5.5: Greek & Latin Roots 5
Romance Language: A group of related languages all derived from Latin. French, Italian, Romanian, and Spanish are examples of Romance languages. Root: Latin Romanicus "of or in the Roman style," from Romanus "Roman." Lesson 1.5: Roots
Anglo-French: The French written in England from 1066 through the Middle Ages.
Run-on Sentence: Sentences with two or more clauses that are either not joined or improperly joined (e.g., “I fed the cat she was still hungry.” OR “I fed the cat, and I listened to her vomit, and I cleaned up her vomit.” Etc.) Lesson 4.2: Advanced Commas!
Comma splice: A sentence with two or more clauses joined by a comma but missing conjunctions (e.g., “I fed the cat, she was still hungry, she vomited on the rug.” —> “I fed the cat, but she was still hungry. She nonetheless vomited on the rug.”). Lesson 4.2: Advanced Commas!
Fused sentence: A sentence with two or more independent clauses that are not properly connected (e.g., “I fed the cat she was still hungry.” —> “I fed the cat, but she was still hungry.”). Lesson 4.2: Advanced Commas!
Improperly joined conjunctions: Using too many conjunctions or more conjunctions than necessary to join three or more independent clauses (e.g., I fed the cat and I listened to her vomit and I cleaned up her vomit). Lesson 4.2: Advanced Commas!
S
Satire: “a literary work holding up human vices and follies to ridicule or scorn” (e.g., Welcome to the great post-monarch society, where the newly unshackled humans surrender their homes to furry overlords who, in return for a few head pats, allow their utterly free roommates the honor of maintaining an opulent litter box palace and preparing daily banquets of questionable nutritional value). Root: Latin satira "satire; poetic medley" Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Scientific Journal: A publication that contains original articles that have been written by scientists and evaluated by other experts in the same field before publishing. Root: Old French jornel, "a day; time; a day's travel or work" from Latin dies "day." Lesson 2.9: Opinion
Sentence: A group of words that communicate a complete and ordered idea using a subject and a predicate (e.g., I fed the cat). Root: Latin sententia "thought, way of thinking, opinion; judgment, decision," from sentire "be of opinion, feel, perceive." Lesson 1.3: Sentences
Declarative Sentence: Makes a statement (e.g., Cats are the highest form of life on Earth). Root: Latin declarare "make clear, reveal, disclose, announce," from de- “here” + clarare "clarify." Lesson 1.3: Sentences
Exclamatory Sentence: Expresses emotion and ends with an exclamation mark (e.g., Yikes! That’s a touchy subject!). Root: Latin exclamare "cry out loud, call out," from ex- "out," + clamare "cry, shout, call." Lesson 1.3: Sentences
Imperative Sentence: Gives a command and ends with an exclamation mark or period (e.g., Feed that cat!). Root: Latin imperativus "pertaining to a command," from in- "into, in" + parare "to arrange, prepare, adorn." Lesson 1.3: Sentences
Interrogative Sentence: Asks a question and ends with a question mark (e.g., Are cats really the highest form of life on Earth?). Root: Latin interrogare "to ask, question, inquire; interrogate judicially, cross-examine," from inter- "between" + rogare "to ask, to question." Lesson 1.3: Sentences
Sentence Structure: The way we order words and clauses in sentences. Root: Latin structura "a fitting together, adjustment; a building, mode of building." Lesson 2.10: Style & Genre
Sibilance: “having, containing, or producing the sound of or a sound resembling that of the s or the sh in sash” (e.g., The sleepy sled slid through the snow). Root: Latin sibilare “to hiss, whistle.” Lesson 4.4: Emotional Formatting!
Simile: “A figure of speech comparing two unlike things that is often introduced by like or as” (e.g., My cat is like a pillow). Root: Latin simile "a like thing; a comparison, likeness, parallel." Lesson 2.10: Style & Genre
Singular: One item (e.g., cat). Root: Latin singularis "single, solitary, one by one, one at a time; peculiar, remarkable." Lesson 1.8: Plurals & Possessives
Sound Argument: One that is both logically consistent and grounded in the reality of the world. Root: Old English gesund “sound, safe, having the organs and faculties complete and in perfect action.” Lesson 3.10: Conversation vs. Debate
Spacing: The distance between letters, words, or lines. Root: Latin spatium "room, area, distance, stretch of time." Lesson 1.1: Phrases
Double-spacing: Two lines of space between lines of text. Lesson 1.1: Phrases
Letter Spacing: The distance between letters in a word. Lesson 1.1: Phrases
Line Spacing: The distance between lines of text. Lesson 1.1: Phrases
Single-spacing: One line space between lines of text. Lesson 1.1: Phrases
Word Spacing: The distance between words in a text. Lesson 1.1: Phrases
Spelling: The conventional sequence of letters that form a word. Root: Old French espelir "mean, signify, explain, interpret," and "spell out letters, pronounce, recite." Lesson 1.6: Spelling
Split Infinitive: When you put a word between the “to” and the rest of the verb of the infinitive (e.g., to quickly eat). We try to avoid split infinitives in English. Lesson 5.7: Editing for Words and Flow 1
Standard English: “The English that with respect to spelling, grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary is substantially uniform though not devoid of regional differences, that is well established by usage in the formal and informal speech and writing of the educated, and that is widely recognized as acceptable wherever English is spoken and understood.” Root: Old French estandart "military standard, banner." Lesson 1.9: Contractions
Stanza: “A division of a poem consisting of a series of lines arranged together in a usually recurring pattern of meter and rhyme.” A stanza plays the same role in a poem as a paragraph does in prose. Root: Italian stanza from Latin stare "to stand." Lesson 5.5: Greek & Latin Roots 5
Stateless People: People who are not citizens or otherwise recognized residents of any country. Root: Latin status "a station, position, place; way of standing, posture; order, arrangement, condition," from stare "to stand." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Statement: “A single declaration or remark.” Root: Latin status "a station, position, place; way of standing, posture; order, arrangement, condition," from stare "to stand" + Latin -mentum, “the result or product of the action.” Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Steel Man: A stronger version of an argument that you plan to analyze—stronger than even your opposition has given (e.g., You are frustrated that your cat is eating your dinner because you’re hungry and your cat is getting alarmingly chonky). Lesson 3.8: Dissecting Arguments 1
Straw Man: A weak or imaginary summary of your opponent’s position that is set up only to be easily refuted (e.g., You just hate all cats). Lesson 3.8: Dissecting Arguments 1
Style: The way a text is written, as determined by word choice, punctuation and structure of sentences and paragraphs, formatting, and content and tone. Root: Latin stilus "stake, instrument for writing, manner of writing, mode of expression." Lesson 2.10: Style & Genre
Subject: The “person or thing that is being discussed, described, or dealt with” in a sentence. Root: Latin subiectus "lying under, below, near bordering on," from sub- "under" + iacere "to throw." Lesson 1.3: Sentences
Subject-Verb Agreement: When the form of the verb correctly reflects whether the subject is singular or plural (e.g., The cats is in the box → The cats are in the box). Root: Latin ad- + Old French gre, gret "that which pleases," from Latin gratus "pleasing, welcome, agreeable." Lesson 1.3: Sentences
Subjunctive: A verb mood that reflects the hypothetical (e.g., I would be happy if I were allowed to eat this cookie.) Lesson 4.3: The Fuzzies
Suffix: A word root at the end of a word (e.g., Technology). Root: Latin sub- "under, up from under" + figere "to fasten, fix." Lesson 1.5: Roots
Supporting Detail: Specific facts, experiences, or other information that illustrate an idea in a paragraph or text. Root: Old French detail "small piece or quantity," from de- "entirely" + taillier "to cut in pieces." Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Supporting Idea: An thought or claim that explains and illustrates the main argument of a paragraph or text. Root: Greek idea "form; the look of a thing; a kind, sort, nature; mode, fashion," from idein "to see." Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Syllable: “One or more letters (such as syl, la, and ble) in a word (such as syl*la*ble).” Put your hand underneath your chin and say a word. Every time your chin goes down, you are saying a syllable. Lesson 1.5: Roots
Syntax: The way words are put together to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Root: Greek syntaxis, “a a putting together or in order,” from syn- “together” + tassein “arrange.” Lesson 2.10: Style & Genre
T
Tense: The form of a verb, modified to reflect when something happened or might happen (e.g., I fed the cat vs. I will be feeding the cat). Root: Latin tempus “a portion of time.” Lesson 4.3: The Fuzzies
Theme: An idea or quality that you see repeated across multiple things. Root: Greek thema "a proposition, subject, deposit," literally "something set down." Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Time: Debatable, but generally “a nonspatial continuum that is measured in terms of events which succeed one another from past through present to future.” Root: Old English tima "limited space of time." Lesson 2.8: Chronology
Clock Time: Time as measured by a clock (e.g., 1:34 a.m.). Root: Latin clocca "bell." Lesson 2.8: Chronology
Date Time: Time as measured by a calendar (e.g., June 1, 2087). Root: Latin datus "given." Lesson 2.8: Chronology
Topic Sentence: A statement of the main idea of a paragraph or text (e.g., Robots are the greatest invention of all time). Root: Greek Ta Topika, literally "matters concerning topoi," "commonplaces," from topos "place." Lesson 2.3: Connecting Ideas Into Paragraphs 1
Typewriter: “A machine for writing in characters similar to those produced by printer's type by means of keyboard-operated types striking a ribbon to transfer ink or carbon impressions onto the paper.” Root: Greek typos "a blow, dent, impression, mark, effect of a blow" + Old English writan "to score, outline, draw the figure of," and "to set down in writing." Lesson 1.1: Phrases
U
V
Valid Argument: One that is logically consistent within the set of information. Root: Latin validus "strong, effective, powerful, active," from valere "be strong." Lesson 3.10: Conversation vs. Debate
Values: “Something (such as a principle or quality) intrinsically valuable or desirable.” Root: Latin valere "be strong, be well; be of value, be worth." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Core Values: The most important or central values. Root: Latin cor "heart." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Verb: The action word. The thing that your subject is doing in a sentence or clause (e.g., I fed the cat). Root: Latin verbum "verb," originally "a word." Lesson 1.3: Sentence Basics
Auxiliary Verb: Minor verbs that support the main verb and are usually used to create different verb tenses (e.g., I have fed the cat). Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Modal Verb: Auxiliary verbs that we use to express likelihood, possibility, ability, permission, request, suggestion/advice, command, obligation or necessity, or habit (e.g., I should feed the cat). Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Vernacular: “Of, relating to, or being a nonstandard language or dialect of a place, region, or country.” An altered version of a language that is spoken by a smaller group of people (e.g., y’all). Root: Latin vernaculus "domestic, native, indigenous; pertaining to home-born slaves." Lesson 1.9: Contractions
Slang: “An informal nonstandard vocabulary composed typically of coinages, arbitrarily changed words, and extravagant, forced, or facetious figures of speech.” (e.g., that’s so suss) Root: Modern English. Lesson 1.9: Contractions
Rhyming Cockney Slang: A form of English slang which originated in the East End of London and that replaces an English word with two words, the second of which rhymes with the original word (e.g., Kids → Dustbin lids). Lesson 1.9: Contractions
Voice: “distinction of form or a system of inflections of a verb to indicate the relation of the subject of the verb to the action which the verb expresses”
Active Voice: When the subject of a sentence performs the action (e.g., I fed the cat). Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Passive Voice: When the action of a sentence is received by the subject (e.g., The cat was fed). Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Vote: “A usually formal expression of opinion or will in response to a proposed decision.” Root: Latin votum "a vow, wish, promise to a god, solemn pledge, dedication." Lesson 2.2: Invent A Country!
Vowel: In English, the letters a, e, i, o, and u. Root: Latin vocalis, in littera vocalis, literally "vocal letter," from vox "voice." Lesson 1.8: Plurals & Possessives
W
Western World: Currently refers to the regions of Europe, North America, and Oceania. Root: Old English west "in or toward the west, in a westerly direction." Lesson 1.5: Roots
Word Choice: The specific words an author chooses to use in a text. Root: Old French chois "one's choice; fact of having a choice." Lesson 2.10: Style & Genre
Word Class: The role of a word in our language, such as a noun or verb. Lesson 4.1: Grammar Overview
Word Flow: The rhythmic structure of your text. Lesson 5.7: Editing for Words & Flow 1
Word Root: The core chunk(s) of a word and its/their origin(s). Root: Old English rōt "underground, downward-growing part of a plant." Lesson 1.5: Roots
Writing: The act of forming visible letters, words, or texts that express information, ideas, and/or feelings in your brain and heart. Root: Old English writan "to score, outline, draw the figure of," and "to set down in writing."